A Summary Essay For Your Sophomore Masters

A Summary Essay For Your Sophomore Master'sThere are a number of websites that offer free sample essays for students of undergraduate and master's level in the United States of America. These free writing samples are written by both lecturers and other experts. As you do your own research and search for the best essay, there are some tips to help you improve your essay and polish it well.Sample essays written by lecturers tend to be hard on the student and they rarely include grammatical errors or spelling mistakes. The language used in the essay should be clear and crisp, without too much repetition of words and phrases. It is important to use the same sentence structure throughout the essay. Also, read the entire essay out loud while you write it.Once you have prepared your outline for the essay, you can now add important ideas in the essay. Use the introduction and the body to guide the reader into the rest of the essay. In this way, you will be able to provide more information in the rest of the essay.Before you begin writing the essay, make sure you do a rough draft first. This is the first draft that you write and edit. You can then take out all the things that are not useful or you may want to change. Then you can go back and revise again the draft until you have a final draft that you can submit for your university.Some websites offer the most comprehensive and up-to-date summary essay sample available for free. It has been verified by the experts, which means that you can be assured that you will get the best essay possible from this site. Another benefit is that it is usually updated so you know what to expect.You can look for the summary essay sample on online sites. You can also do some extra research on it yourself. There are many websites that offer free samples of the best essays that you can choose from.This means that there is a lot of flexibility with using the free sample. These articles are usually edited again by professional writers who wi ll ensure that the free sample essay that you have just found is as good as the best examples that are offered in paid websites. So now that you have finished reading the article you can use it to improve your summary essay.

-Decisions on life and living Essay Example

-Decisions on life and living Essay Christians believe that they have a responsibility to care for the world, which God has created and all the people in it. Part of Christian responsibility is to care for everybody and not discriminate against people who are different, for whatever reason. If we look at a disabled person as an outcast how are we to know they arent looking at us in the same way. Christians may not like everybody but are taught to love and care for everyone. Love thy neighbour as you love thyself. This is saying that we should treat people how we would like to be treated, if we treat people with respect and dignity they will do the same to us.Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with thy whole heart and with thy whole soul and with thy whole mind. This is saying that if you love God and everything God has done, then you should love this world that he has created and all it has in it including the people. If God has created people all different then we are obviously meant to love everybody and not look at or treat anyone as outcasts. In Genesis it says that we are all made in Gods image so we are all equal and no-one is better than anybody else, also as Christians see God as perfect they must see that he needs nothing and wants people which therefore makes all people important.Christian stewardship is to look after the world for God, however many Christians believe that it isnt just up to them and that everybody should take care of the world as they also live and use its resources. Some Christians may start to think that they shouldnt care because no-body else does, they may think why should they care for the environment when other people are destroying it.Christians believe they are responsible for looking after those who are at the end of their lives and the unborn. This may link to their opposed views to abortion and euthanasia.Christians who care and enjoy the world which God has created are showing their love for him and through their responsibilities as Christian steward looking after the earth they can show their obedience and that they will do what God wants them to.Overall Christians believe it is their responsibility to look after the environment, and care for all people without discriminating. God made all in his own image so were all equal.Abortion and Euthanasia are two of the most controversial issues that Christians are faced with.Opinions on these subjects are so divided because of the different things, which they are told in the bible for example, Exodus 20:1-17 (the Ten Commandments) You shall not kill and also genesis 1:26-7 It is not up to us to take life away. But it is up to us to be caring and responsible. We cant watch others suffering.Abortion is the termination of a pregnancy this is usually before 24 weeks of pregnancy and consists of the foetus been removed. There are many reasons a woman may want an abortion for example if the mother was raped; this is one circumstance when some Christians would regard the termination as acceptable. I f a woman has been raped and becomes pregnant there is a very high chance that abortion will seem like the only way. The mother may believe that when the child is born it will not be given the love it deserves because of the circumstances in which it was created. Also every time the woman saw her baby she would be reminded of her attack, and as well as fearing the baby would grow up like its father the mother may suffer from psychological issues due to the attack. In which case the baby would be a permanent reminder and could lead to its mother never fully recovering.But whilst many Christians believe life begins at conception and thou shalt not kill some still believe that under certain circumstances abortion is the right thing to do. Some women may want an abortion if their child is going to be born with a deformity or hereditary terminal illness but many Christians would still say that the baby deserves the chance to lead a normal fulfilling life. However if a child is born and i s need of constant care, life wouldnt be enjoyable and the parents would also find it hard spending all their time caring for their child. No-body wants to see a child grow up suffering so it would be considered compassionate to go through with an abortion.One other case in which Christians may see an abortion as acceptable is for example if the mother will die through continuing her pregnancy. Christians believe thou shalt not kill from the ten commandments and if a woman was denied the right to have an abortion despite the fact she was going to die that would be going against the beliefs of many. So in retrospect an abortion would be the right thing to do.Although there a lots of Christians who believe abortion can be considered justified and the right thing to do, many still believe that under no circumstance should a woman be granted the permission to have an abortion. This is a confusion issue for some people because there is a lot of debate about when exactly life begins. All Christians have different opinions for example some believe that life begins at conception in which case the termination of a pregnancy would be the murder of a living being. Others believe that full life doesnt begin until the baby is out of the mothers womb and surviving on its own. This means it is part of the mother until birth, so she has the right to decide what to do with her body. Also there are people who believe that life begins when the foetus has a heartbeat or has brainwaves and a central nervous system. Christians believe it is not up to us to take life away.Roman Catholics believe strongly that abortion is murder as life begins at conception, they do not believe in the use of contraception, if you are to have sex it should be because you want to have a baby. They see no exceptions for abortion. While The Church of England also have a strong opposition towards abortion they recognise that there are strictly limited conditions in which abortion may be preferable.Christi ans may be divided on their opinions of this issue because of the bible and what they have been taught to believe. The bible is a contradiction. While the Ten Commandments teach that thou shalt not kill Jesus preached compassion and forgiveness. So abortion seen as murder is obviously wrong but to show compassion for the mother of the child and forgiveness should she go through with an abortion as put many Christians in two minds about what is right or wrong and what they personally believe. Jesus never preached about abortion; he never told anyone it was acceptable nor did he say it was totally out of the question. So what Christians believe is their own opinion it cannot be proved true.However if a woman is considering an abortion she should consider every option she has in great detail, abortion is not a subject that can be taken light heartedly. Other factors to consider in the controversial issue of abortion are for example that women would still have abortions if the procedure were illegal. However it would be dangerous and in some cases life threatening as they would rely on back street clinics were the operation would be performed illegally. Although this is true, there as been research into whether or not a foetus can feel pain as it is about to die, and women may suffer from guilt for years afterwards.If thinking about abortion every option should be considered, all points of view must be taken into account. Which choice would bring more good than bad. Is an abortion really the right thing to do?Euthanasia is another controversial issue in which the opinions of Christians are very divided. Euthanasia means easy painless death. There are different types of Euthanasia, known as passive, positive and voluntary. Voluntary is a patient requesting to die when life is becoming unbearable, passive is allowing someone to die due to the lack of prevention of death. Positive is to deliberately cause the death of somebody for example in the case of Harold Shipma n. Suicide is a sin and assisting someone in dying is also wrong therefore voluntary Euthanasia is wrong under all circumstances right? In the UK the law stands that anyone who helps a person die no matter what the circumstances is an accessory to murder, so yes you would say that it was wrong. Voluntary Euthanasia is known by several names such as; assisted suicide; mercy killing and gentle easy death. Assisted suicide is when a person helps a patient to die, those who believe voluntary euthanasia is acceptable do not believe this to be suicide. Suicide is when one person kills themselves for a reason other than a terminal illness, people who try to commit suicide are often seeking attention and/or trying to escape problems such as failed relationships, abuse and stress caused from exams for example.Many Christians believe that Euthanasia is wrong under all circumstances, although one in which some Christians may see voluntary Euthanasia as acceptable is for example if a patient is in severe pain and are dying. Christians are taught to be compassionate human beings so it would be wrong to watch another person suffering. A patient shouldnt have to wake up everyday thinking well Im alive today. Also a patients family although theyd want to keep their relative alive they wouldnt want to watch them suffering, left to die painfully with each day a miracle that theyre still alive. It isnt natural to be breathing and alive thanks to a machine.Another circumstance, which may be accepted, is if a person couldnt enjoy life because of a permanent and severe disability. Some people would say that the person had the right to choose whether or not they wanted to carry on their life. If they were suffering from a disease such a Parkinsons and were totally dependent on other people they may feel humiliated and life might end up been more of a chore than something to enjoy. It cant be seen as acceptable to watch them suffering.A third circumstance in which some Christians may see voluntary Euthanasia as acceptable is for example if a persons existence is more like a vegetable. If a person is so badly injured from an accident that they are permanently brain damaged or in a coma in which it is unlikely that theyll wake up, it would be an act of compassion to end their lives. So that the suffering of the patient and their family can be taken away. Although some people disagree with this and believe that God has mapped out our lives and that he decides when life is created and he decides when it is taken away. It can not be considered the right thing to do to watch a patient and their family to sit and wait for death to happen. If we are all special to God then surely in these circumstances Voluntary euthanasia must be acceptable.In Genesis 1:26-7 we are told that we are all special to God and that it is not up to us to take life away, even in circumstances such as mentioned above. I disagree with this because it shows no love or compassion however a very r elevant argument against voluntary Euthanasia is that a patient may be in an unfit state to make such an important decision, for example if the patient is heavily medicated. They wouldnt be in the right frame of mind to make the decision whether or not they wanted to die. Also it wouldnt be right to permit Voluntary Euthanasia if a patients family dont agree that it is the right choice.Another really important factor to consider which Christians argue is whether or not peoples moral conscience would change, If Voluntary Euthanasia becomes legal doctors who help patients to die will start to feel less guilty the more times they assist someone in dying. In 1 Corinthians 6: 18-20 (body as a temple) we are told that our body is a temple that should be looked after, and no one else nor ourselves should harm it. As in voluntary euthanasia which is killing our own human body which is the most harm we can actually do. Christians are worried as to where it will lead us if voluntary euthanasi a is acceptable. Babies born with certain conditions. Will they be allowed to die? Another question on the minds of many is If Abortion is legal should Euthanasia also be legal?. If Abortion is seen as compassionate towards the mother, in cases such as the baby been born with a terminal illness in which case it wouldnt enjoy life. Then clearly Voluntary Euthanasia should be seen as an act of compassion towards a patient who has a terminal illness and no longer can enjoy life.But the Roman Catholic view states that Voluntary Euthanasia is wrong. Only God has the right to make decisions over death. Jeremiah 1: 5 says that God has mapped out our lives even before conception, we cannot end life as God may have something special for them to do even if it seems theres nothing left they can do. While The Church Of England believe that people who become ill need special care as they become vulnerable however the C.O.E also states that a person has the right to refuse treatment but under no circumstances do they have the right to choose when they die.I believe that Christians shouldnt try to make others accept their views, what they believe about life is up to them. God created people to be different therefore we all have different opinions. Everybody in the world has a different opinion on everything; even Christians have mixed views about all different controversial issues such as Abortion and Euthanasia. God created us in his own image, and God is seen as perfect and so there should be nothing wrong with Christians having their opinions, people from different religions will also have their opinions. However Christians believe that their opinions are right in all cases. They think that they arent just telling you an opinion and trying to make it your opinion also, they are telling what is right and what should be.Some children are sent to religious school such as catholic schools, they may not be religious children and in some cases may not come from religious famil ies but still are taught about religion, have to follow the rules, say prayers and are very often told what to believe.I think non-religious people make up the majority of the people who believe Christians should keep their views and opinions to themselves. Non religious people still have consciences and no whats morally right when it comes to abortions and euthanasia, however they can see circumstances in which these can be accepted. Whereas most Christians are adamant about their opinions and see no situations that should be solved by Voluntary Euthanasia or the death of innocent baby.Christians and their opinions have a big affect on peoples actions even those who are not religious. For example; Support groups for people unsure about abortion and families and patients considering Euthanasia are often run by Christians, if this is the case advice would be biased as they would want you to make the decision they would if they were in that position. Somebody who is contemplating Abor tion or Euthanasia would need an unbiased opinion and advice from an unbiased person, as they would most likely already be in a vulnerable state of mind. Christians make a person feel like it is wrong for them to make their own decision about abortion and euthanasia but there is no right or wrong decision just a decision that is morally right for a particular person and what feels right for them and their family.

Heart Attacks essays

Heart Attacks essays A heart attack is also known as Myocardial Infarction (M.I.). A heart attack occurs when the blood supply to a portion of the heart muscle is severely reduced or stopped. This happens when one of the arteries that supply blood to the heart muscle is blocked by an obstruction. This blockage can be due to a condition called atherosclerosis (a build up of fatty like substance along the wall of the artery), a blood clot or a coronary vessel spasm along with a total obstruction. If the blood supply to a portion of the heart stops, that area of the heart will no longer receive the oxygen or nutrients needed to carry out its function and will die. If it is a very small part of the heart involved, it will be able to work without it. If a large portion is damaged, irreversible damage will happen which can lead to death. Damage to the heart muscle may be so severe that it may cause abnormal heart rhythm. Most people who are of a myocardial infraction or a heart attack do so within a few hours due to this type of heart rhythm. The heart attack victim will complain of pressure, discomfort or a squeezing sensation in the center of the chest. There may be pain radiating to the arms or the neck. There may also be shortness of breath, weakness, fatigue, nausea, vomiting and or indigestion. The pain that occurs is the result of heart tissue schema (decreased blood supply). The area that is not receiving enough blood is literally crying out for help. When a person complains of any of the symptoms mentioned, they should be transported to the nearest hospital. The diagnosis of an M.I. is made for the patient's history, from special tests on E.C.G. and measurement of certain enzymes released into the bloodstream from damaged heart muscle. Once an M.I. has occurred and a portion of the heart muscle has died, something has to be done to prevent a piece of the obstruction from breaking off and blocking another artery somewhere else ...

Madagascar Rainforest of Atsinanana Research Paper - 1

Madagascar Rainforest of Atsinanana - Research Paper Example The Madagascar Rainforest of Atsinanana is â€Å"critically important for maintaining the ecological processes which have resulted in Madagascar’s unique biodiversity† (African Natural Heritage, 2009). There is a high degree of endemism, that is 97% of the species of animals existing in these moist forests are found only in Madagascar, including 25 species of lemur. The national parks protect two-thirds of the island’s mammals. According to Ferguson (p.135), â€Å"80% of the fauna and 90% of the flora on the island are found nowhere else on earth†. Thus Madagascar’s label as a ‘biodiversity hotspot’ indicates its importance for conservation.    Thesis Statement: The purpose of this paper is to investigate Madagascar’s Rainforest of Atsinanana, assess its ecological value, identify the ecological uniqueness of the plant and animal life, examine the rainforest’s biodiversity, the human intrusions threatening the area, identify the existing safeguards and further conservation and preservation efforts, determine how individuals can help preserve the diversity of the area, and the losses that would be incurred if intrusion were to go unchecked. Madagascar is the world’s fourth largest island. The Rainforests of the Atsinanana are mainly related to the steeper terrain along the eastern escarpment and mountains of Madagascar. The relict Rainforests constitute a protected serial property composed of the six national parks distributed along the eastern side of the island. This property is composed of a representative selection of the most important habitats of the unique rainforest biota of Madagascar. These include several of the endangered and endemic plant and animal species (UNESCO, 2011). The region also has a distinctive cultural history and beautiful beaches (Ward, 2010). The relict rainforests are significant ecologically, maintaining biological process which are vital for the survival of Madagascar’s unique biodiversity. The country’s

United States National Debt Ceiling Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

United States National Debt Ceiling - Essay Example The debate was related with the appropriate level of the Government spending and its impacts on the overall debt and deficit of the country. The crisis was so significant that it affected the US stock market heavily. Prices of the Federal bonds increased like anything and investors were significantly confused about the future economic situations of the world’s oldest democracy. Political fraternity across the country was raising their voices to cut down the governmental expenditures to manage the debt ceiling. Budget deficit was increasing, to tame that deficit debt ceiling was a reactive measure. Due to this economic turmoil, credit rating agency Standard & Poor’s downgraded the credit rating of USA for the first time in US history. The debt ceiling of 2011 was introduced to improve the health of the US financial markets. But unfortunately the measure of debt ceiling was not at all beneficiary for the US financial markets. Lower assets prices and the higher borrowing costs had significant impacts on the public spending. People of the country were significantly uncertain related with the fluctuating assets prices and the borrowing costs. They were not willing to spend their money. Credit risk and stock prices volatility were prominent in 2011 and it continued up to 2012. VIX is a volatility index which is used for measuring the implied volatility in the financial market. During that period of time of debt ceiling that index jumped upwards. It stayed elevated for longer period of time (Irving & Engel, 2011, pp. 34-35). During that period of time investors did not invested their moneys as they perceived the situation as significantly risky. As the market was significantly volatile, investors stored their money as the buffer for the future adverse situations. During that period of time S&P 500 index of equity fell drastically. It was almost 17% down. At that point of time there was no sign of improvement. The index remained on the lower side. The fall in

Political Structure Of The Roman Empire Theology Essay

Political Structure Of The Roman Empire Theology Essay The public sphere of Rome, which included religious norms, social settings, as well as some other cultural divides, has been known to greatly affect the Roman political system throughout, from its inception to its fall. Our world has seen many great empires and perhaps the most popular one by name is the Roman Empire. A great number of books have been written on this subject, many movies have been made, and the Roman Empire remains rich in our minds to this date. The Roman history involves some great moments as it recounts such great leaders as Julius Caesar (see Picture 1), the birth of Christ and his exploits, and then the setting up of the Church and the Vatican by Constantine. Just like any other state or empire, the Roman Empire was also much affected by the people that were its subjects. These people had their own religion throughout the various epochs of the Empire, and these people had their own norms and practices. The Roman citizen was instantly recognized by his toga (See Illustration 1) and the Roman army by his uniform (See Picture 2) The political structure of the Roman Empire was affected by the way that its citizens had behaved during the various times, including their religion, their social structure, gender relations and economics. This paper shall follow the course of the Roman Empire through history, from its inception to its decline and fall and relate how the various factors were able to influence the Empire in different ways. It is also important to realize that the Roman public was able to influence the political structure of the Roman Empire. The culture of the Roman Empire was influenced by many factors. The Roman Senate declared Augustus (See Picture 3) as the Emperor of Rome in 27BC. This was the beginning of the Roman Empire that was destined to last for the next five hundred years, adding more and more territories to its name. The diversity in the Roman Empire came because of the number of regions that it was able to incorporate into its boundaries. The Roman Empire included ancient Britain, Arabia, and Romania. Augustus was a good ruler and he was able to stabilize Rome both politically as well as socially. A lot of development in the areas of art, literature, and philosophy took place in the Roman Empire, as it continuously borrowed from various civilizations and cultures. Among the most important of things that came out of the Roman Empire include the religious and ethical elements of Judaism, the teachings of Christianity, the study of astronomy and astrology, and so much more information from other Eastern count ries like Persia and Egypt. This spread of information gave power to the Roman politics since they were able to use this knowledge to introduce new reforms in their political structure, as well as add some mystery to it. The Romans left such a mark of their culture on the world that people and artists, centuries later, such as Michelangelo in the 16th century A.D, This is how the Roman culture was able to spread its architecture and literature all over Europe, and we can still find their elements in various Western traditions today. One of the areas where we see the most of Roman influence is that of mathematics. Many of the theories and principles that are employed in mathematics have been the product of Greek/Roman minds such as Archimedes and Pythagoras. Their ideas have formed the basis of what we call geometry. Many innovations and inventions have been made based on these ideas and hence we see a large influence of Roman mentality in things like weapons and architecture. Much of theoretical as well as practical science has also been laid down by the Romans. They established the field of botany and many of the early Roman scientists worked to collect a horde of information about many of the plants that existed in the region. Aristotle and his Theophrastus (often referred to as the father of botany) classified and named these plants. Although no apparent connection exists between the advancement in mathematics and the political structure, we find that as more and more mathematical concepts were introduced and adopted in Rome, the politicians also were able to adopt their versatility. One of the concepts that arose out of mathematics was economics and the Romans were able to carry out trade on a better level. This gave a boost to the Roman Empire and the politicians were able to use mathematics to their advantage. Many of the ideas of economics and politics that the Western world follows toady have also been derived from Ancient Romans. The Romans system of the senate is still employed by many Western countries today. In addition, the Romans were the first ones to introduce the ideas of interest in business and loans and we all know that the whole economic arena of the world today works on the principles of interest. Many of the Greek/Roman philosophers, such as Aristotle and Socrates, also played their role in Roman influence and we see that many Western countries have their contemporaries who are always building upon the original ideas and concepts. The Roman influence on art is phenomenal. We find that many of the artists of the Renaissance and the Enlightenment era used to follow the art techniques of the Romans. Many of the sculptures and murals painted by Michelangelo (See Illustration 2) are evidence of the fact that he was motivated and inspired by Roman art. These theories, aspiration s, and ideas were passed from the Greeks to the Romans and then to other nations in Western Europe. The most comprehensive aspect of the social life and the Empire that the Romans were able to develop and spread to the rest of Europe includes the details of the Roman Law. The Romans were able to take the basic framework provided by the Greeks and transform it into an extremely sophisticated and scientific legal system. The history of Roman law spans almost a thousand years from the law of the twelve tables (449 BC) to Justinians codes (aroung 530 BC). The twelve tables still reflect a relatively primitive and pre-scientific legal system. However, from the 2nd century B.C, the Romans began to apply the methods and categories of Greek philosophy to legal problems (which the Greeks themselves had never thought of). A legal profession began to emerge and the production of scholarly treaties on Roman law started. It was in the second century AD that the Roman legal science was able to reach its peak. This happened when the economic and political conditions of the principate became favor able to the scholarly activity of Roman jurists. However, this classical age of the Roman jurists ended in the 3rd century and no one has been adequately able to explain that. The following centuries saw a general decline of Roman legal culture, which was not stopped by the efforts of emperor Justinian to revive classical Roman law in the 6th century. Justinian did manage, however, to preserve a great part of the literary legacy of the classical jurists by incorporating their writings in his codes. The Digest, which is the most important part of the codification and was published in 533, is a gigantic collection of fragments from classical text books and commentaries. While it was unknown in Western Europe in the early middle ages, it was rediscovered around 1070 in Italy. From that time onward, Roman law and especially the teachings of the classical jurists preserved in the Digest became the basis of continental European. It has been said quite rightly, that the Digest is one of the most influential books in European . Perhaps the most important aspect of the Roman culture that was able to affect the political structure the most was religion. Rome had grown up to be a formidable empire by 120 AD (See Map). The history of Rome is embedded with wonder. Much of what Rome was to become in the later stages of its life was due to the ancient yet colorful religion, one that is now known as Roman mythology. The Romans had gods and goddesses for every element, and for every occasion. These gods were in a continuous state of tension, balancing the good and evil, while keeping the humans happy as well. It is in this religion that we find the basic impetus for the Roman Empire, its political structure, and its social environment. Perhaps Ovid was best able to present this relationship between the gods and humans in his Metamorphoses. The first story of a human involves a sinner, punished for his offence against the gods. Lycaons case represents one example of the wickedness of all humanity in the Iron Age. Lyc aon (wolf man in Greek) is the reason for the flood, Jupiter explains, but not the origin of evil (Ovid does not mention the famous story of Pandoras box). Lycaons metamorphosis into a beast reveals his true nature; the description translates literally, his mouth gathered savagery from the man himself. The reaction of the other gods to Jupiters punishment of Lycaon resembles a senate of yes-men; at first it sounds as if the gods feel pity for humanity, but soon their selfish motives are revealed: without men they will lose their sacrifices. Jupiter claims that he wants to make the world safe for lesser divinities, nymphs, fauns, satyrs, but as we will soon see in the stories to follow, the biggest threat to pretty young nymphs are the amorous gods themselves After the ancient religions in Rome, came the slightly modern ideas that pertain to cynicism and stoicism. One of the most famous of the Stoics was Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius (See Picture 4). His whole political system was dictated by the Stoic way of life as he was in favor of the human being devoid of all emotions, where things like envy, fear, etc were all thought to have come out of false judgments of the human minds. The focus of much of Aureliuss philosophy had to do with the ethics that were involved in the Stoic way of life. These ethics involved the four basic virtues of wisdom, courage, justice, and temperance. Aurelius was also an advocate of going through continuous meditation and exercises in order to keep the mind and the body in a state of togetherness. In Meditations, Book II, part 1, Aurelius writes: Say to yourself in the early morning: I shall meet today ungrateful, violent, treacherous, envious, uncharitable men. All of these things have come upon them through ignorance of real good and ill I can neither be harmed by any of them, for no man will involve me in wrong, nor can I be angry with my kinsman or hate him; for we have come into the world to work together This is not just him making a statement; rather it is giving the reader a practical technique of reminding oneself every day, repeatedly, of the problems that the person might face, and how they can be solved. This is somewhat reminiscence of what later became to be known as the self-fulfilling prophecy. This Stoic way of life was greatly reflected in Aurelius political structuring of Rome. But perhaps the one religion that had the most impact on the Roman empire and its political structuring is Christianity. The fall of the Roman Empire brought about a rise of Christianity and the Christian Church and this affected many changes in the view of the world. Some of the rulers of Christianity, like Saint Augustine (354-430 AD), upheld that the Bible should be considered the only legitimate source of information about important questions and this led to a great devotion to the Bible as the main source of intellectual reserve for the Western civilization for many years to come. Many of the Christians fell into the dark ages right after the fall of the Roman empire as well and only a few found salvation in the religion. The evolution of the Christian church in terms of contributions by various rulers are discussed herein. Constantine I (See Picture 5) was one who helped contribute a lot to the rise of the Christian church as he was one of the most advantageous advocates of the Orthodox Church. He was a Roman emperor who legalized Christianity and founded Constantinople, and by doing so he single handedly laid the foundations of the Greco-Christian Empire of Byzantium. He adopted Christianity as the religion of his state and gave freedom to the priests and bishops to practice Christianity without bounds. Another emperor who was instrumental in the expansion and vital to the race of Christianity was Theodosios I (born 347 AD). In 380, he proclaimed Christianity as the official religion of the state. He also convened the second Ecumenical Council and finalized the Articles of Faith. As with these two aforementioned Emperors, there was many who ruled Byzantine and helped it progress in terms prospective growth as well as religious development of Christianity. By the 11th and 12th centuries, Christianity saw a divide into the East and the West sections due to the vast land distances that the religion covered. There was hardly even any contact between the Christians of the East and the Christians of the West because of the great geographical distances between them. They did, however, remain to be the same religion, and were only kept apart in their cultural and historical upbringing by imaginary lines of directions. Thus were born many different independent and self-governing churches that answered to either the Western or the Eastern Orthodox Church. All these churches were in contact with each other and were bind together by the canon law and followed the same traditions, literature, ecclesiastical calendar, and customs. The Roman Empire remained a powerful one for more than 300 years, but it also met its doom when it disintegrated into two parts, the Western and the Eastern empire. No one is quite sure exactly when the division occurred but everyone agrees that it was a gradual transformation. It all started because of power struggles between the rulers of the area. There were many times in the history of Rome when the rulers were undecided as to the determination of successors to their thrones. After 330 A.D, Rome was often engaged in civil wars between martials, all of whom wanted to be the rulers of Rome. The Roman economy aslo played a vital role in its division. Eastern Rome found better uses for its slaves and there was a change in the social and economical system of that region. The Eastern part of the empire developed a different political system, one that resembled the fuedal system of today, and this gave a boost to their economy. The Western part, however, stuck to conventional norms and soon their middle class disappeared in the wake of excessive taxing and the Western Roman Empire fell. Since Byzantine was the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, the region came to be known as the Byzantine Empire. The Eastern Empire survived because it had a more developed urban culture and it was not invaded as much as the Western one was. Since the Byzantine Empire had been a part of the grander Roman Empire, it retained much of the Roman laws and its heritage, although the legal code was updated. The official langiage of the region remained as Latin in the beginning and was changed to Greek later on. Many new churches, including the famous Church of Agia Sofia (Holy Wisdom), were also contructed. Some of Byzantiums contribution to Western Europe include great works of literature and art, a framework for an extremely efficient and highly centralized administration, and trading norms and regulations. Perhaps the biggest contribution comes out of the setup of the Orthodox Church that defined the cultural, political, social, and religios life of the region and its people for many a years to come. The Orthodox Church originated with Christ himself and can be said to be as old as Christianity itself. The Orthodox Church is geographically considered to be an Eastern Church because it is basically a creation Middle Eastern, Hellenic, and Slavic history and culture. Most of the growth and progress of the Orthodox Church, whether it is historical or spiritual, has been done on its own, almost entirely with segregation from Roman Catholicism and Protestantism. The divide between the two parts, the East and the West, cannot be easily identified, but this divide occurred mostly in the 11th and 12th centuries. There was hardly even any contact between the Christians of the East and the Christians of the West before this and because of the far greater distances of those, these two, however same religions, were kept apart in their cultural and historical upbringing by imaginary lines of directions. There are many different independent and self-governing churches that answer to the Easter n Orthodox Church. All these churches are always in contact with each other and are bind together by the canon law The Orthodox Churchs administration was directed over managing the people around the land, people, which were known as a community. There were many such communities all over the ancient Russian and Greek regions of the land and each city of the era had a community that served the Orthodox Church. The highest rank amongst the governors of these communities was the bishop, who was assisted in his duties by priests (or presbyters) and deacons. The idea of martyrdom was common to the people of the Orthodox Church as it attracted much persecution from the other forms of governments that were in operation in those times. The administrative ideas about holding a council were always very important to the Orthodox Church and they believed that the council was the only able body to administer the laws and rules of the Church unto the people of the area. These councils were setup so that any problem that could not be solved by one person alone was put to the vote and many able heads were put together to work out the will of God on the problematic issue. The first council was converged in Jerusalem and it was convened so that the Apostles could come to a decision upon a serious issue. Many different types of council were setup, local ones and the famous Apostolic Council. It was only in the fourth century, when an Emperor of Constantine embraced Christianity that the Christian Empire was founded. Another important aspect of religion that greatly affected the Roman Empire were the Seven Ecumenical Councils. The Seven Ecumenical Councils were the most important councils of the Orthodox Church. The first one was convened in Nicea in 325 A.D. By Constantine the great and the last one again in Nicea in 787 A.D. The main topics that the Councils addressed were mostly on the nature of Jesus advent on Earth. The first Council was very sure in its decision and it described the nature of Christ as being the same as of God Himself. The Father and Son image of God Jesus was discussed in the second Ecumenical Council held in Constantinople in 381 A.D and it decreed the Trinitarian ideology that there were three states of God: Father, Son and Spirit. The Macedonians were condemned as heretics in this second Council. The third Ecumenical Council was held in Ephesus in 431 A.D. Nestorians were deemed as heretics and Jesus was proclaimed to be both complete God and complete man in one person and thus Mary became theotokos, or God Bearer because she gave birth to both God and Man. The Third Council also declared that both the parts of the Creed were final and complete. The Fourth, Fifth and Sixth Councils were all on the debate of whether the Christ was God or man and all of them declared him as being both occurring in the same form. There were some ideas by the Monophysites and the Monoethlites that Jesus humanity dissolved in the presence of his divinity. So Jesus was only divine. There was vehement condemnation of this theory and all the Councils announced that Jesus is complete God and complete man. There was an intermediate council between the Sixth and Seventh one and it was called the Qinisext Council (Trullo) and was held in Constantinople 692 A.D. This council was held for the completion of the fifth and sixth one and it was held for purely administrative reasons from where the canons were ratified. The seventh Ecumenical Council was held in Nicea in 787 A.D and is also called The Sunday of Orthodoxy. The main debate of this council was what to do with all the images of God and Jesus. So, we find that just like any other political regime is affected by the way that the people orient themselves in it, so was the Roman Empire affected by the various cultural and social aspects of its citizens. And as it is with most of the states, we also find that religion had the biggest part to play in determining the political structure of the Roman Empire. This religious intervention had been instilled in the Roman culture and politics ever since the prehistoric times, where the ancient religions governed the way that the emperors would rule the empire. These religious undertones were also responsible in setting up the social structure of Rome, as it differentiated between the men of different classes. The elites in Rome enjoyed a privileged class where they were free to engage in artistic and intellectual ways of life. Some of the Romans, those who could afford to, would import slaves from distant land and would flaunt them as being more talented than the average Roman slave. This sophistication of the Roman citizens allowed for many other innovations in the social, and hence, the political system of Rome. It was required to make special laws for the foreigner and the slaves, and the elites also enjoyed some special rights. No slaves were allowed to enter the government, while it was the elites birth right to be a Senator. Thus, the more sophisticated the Romans became, so did their political structure. The reason for the public sphere being so much effective in influencing the political realm in the Roman Empire is because it was a very sophisticated empire. We tend to think of those times as being the ancient ages, yet the Romans were very ahead of their time and they were able to live a life that was essentially very different from those people who lived all over the rest of the world. The Romans had confidence, they had ability, and they had their pride, all of which made them into a culturally and socially strong nation. This strength of their nation was also reflected in their political sphere as their citizens were very closely tied up to the government (the senate was elected democratically from the common citizens). Thus the public sphere was greatly able to affect the political structure of Rome, as discussed above in this paper. Picture 1 Julius Caesar, perhaps the most famous Roman of them all Illustration 1 The Roman toga: dress sharp to be a politician Picture 2 The gladiators suit, a soldiers uniform Picture 3 Augustus, the first Roman Emperor Illustration 2 Michelangelos Ceiling of the Sistine Vault Map The Romans had conquered most of Europe by 120 A.D. Picture 4 Marcus Aurelius, the Stoic Picture 5 Constantine I, the Christian Roman Work Cited Aurelius, Marcus, Meditations Book II, Part 1, London: Modern Library, 2003 Ovid, Allen Mandelbaum, The Metamorphoses of Ovid, New York: Harvest Books, 1995 MacMullen, Ramsay, Romanization in the Time of Augustus, Yale University Press, 2000. Veynw, Paul, editor, A History of Private Life: I From Pagan Rome to Byzantium Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1992 Wikipedia, Culture of Ancient Rome, Online, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_culture (Accessed November 28, 2005) Pictures and Maps Portrait Gallery, Online, http://www.roman-empire.net/republic/laterep-gallery-index.html (November 21, 2005) Reenactment Event at Corbridge, Online, http://www.cavazzi.com/roman-empire/diverse/reenactment-corbridge-2002.html (November 21, 2005) Rome: Map of the Empire, Online, http://intranet.dalton.org/groups/Rome/RMap.html (November 20, 2005) Wikipedia, Caesar Augustus, Online, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustus (November 21, 2005) Wikipedia, Constantine I, Online, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine_I_%28emperor%29 (November 22, 2005) Wikipedia, Marcus Aurelius, Online, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius (November 22, 2005) Wikipedia, Roman Culture, Online, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Toga1.png (November 21, 2005) Web Gallery of Art, Frescoes in the Sistine Chapel, Online, http://gallery.euroweb.hu/art/m/michelan/3sistina/1chapel.jpg (November 22, 2005)

The Last Day Of The Year :: essays research papers fc

In the poem 'The Last Day of the Year,'; Annette Von Droste-HÃ ¼lshoff uses imagery and references to God to express the coming of the end of the year. The poem, however, seems to reflect the impending freedom of women from a patriarchal society. This poem's imagery and outside references suggest that it is in fact a plea for the end of the suffering of women, and that the coming of their empowerment is near. The three things that I will use to prove this point are how one year represents the time of women's oppression, how she speaks directly to men in the poem, and how she makes divine references to represent the freedom of women. Droste-Hulshoff says in line one of this poem, 'The year at its turn'; (Droste-Hulshoff, 1). Throughout this poem, she uses the year to represent a period of time that is coming to an end. Referring to the introduction in the World Reader, Droste-Hulshoff was a woman 'yearning for the freedom to be herself'; (Caws, 2002). This forces the reader to consider that she is using the time period of the year as the time of women's oppression. She feels that the time of the oppression is coming to an end. 'I wait in stern silence, O deep night! Is there an open eye?'; (Droste-Hulshoff 5-7) is one example of how she considers the era of women's oppression at its end. Another example is the following quote: ' My life breaks down somewhere in the circle of this year. Long have I known decay. Yet my heart in love glows under the huge stone of passion'; (Droste-Hulshoff 37-42). She has felt this persecution for all of her life, but she still prospers as a individual and waits with short patience for her time to come. At one point in this poem, Droste-Hulshoff speaks to an unidentified second party. 'You, child of sin, has there not been a hollow, secret quiver each day in your savage chest, as the polar winds reach across the stones, breaking, possessed with slow and insistent rage?'; (Droste-Hulshoff 24-31). Continuing under the assumption that this poem was created to show the iniquities of sexism, one could put men in place of you in the preceding excerpt. I believe this to be a likely case because of the references to 'your savage chest'; (Droste-Hulshoff 27) and the words speaking of possession and rage, all considered by society to be very masculine traits.